Concorde

Few aircraft have captured the world’s imagination quite like Concorde. Sleek, elegant, and impossibly fast, it represented a technological leap that pushed commercial aviation into an entirely new realm. For nearly three decades, Concorde carried passengers at twice the speed of sound, turning long‑haul journeys into short hops and becoming a symbol of engineering ambition shared between Britain and France.

Say the word Concorde and most who can remember will conjure up images of that marvel of aviation technology that took travellers hurtling through the stratosphere at twice the speed of sound. Here we are, well into the 21st Century and that era has come and now seems to have gone again. So what was the Super Sonic Transport (SST) Concorde? What was its story?

To find this out, we need to go back over half a century to the 1950s. The Second World War was still fresh in the minds of most of the world and as with most wars, leaps forward had been made in many technologies. Aviation was certainly one of those technologies. The jet age had begun and imaginations were fuelled by new possibilities that could be realised.

The Concorde as we can see was a one‑off design.

Other than the Tupolev TU‑144 “Conkordski”, which flew briefly on some internal routes in Russia, Concorde was the only SST (SuperSonic Transport) to make it off the drawing board and into the history books as a marvel of aviation.

Below we can get an idea of what made Concorde what it was and how it measured up.

Concorde At‑a‑Glance

Item	Details
Manufacturer	Aérospatiale (France) / British Aircraft Corporation (UK)
Role	Supersonic Passenger Transport (SST)
Engines	4 × Rolls‑Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojets with afterburners
Maximum Speed	Mach 2.04 (2,179 km/h / 1,354 mph)
Cruise Altitude	50,000–60,000 ft
Range	3,900 nm (7,223 km)
Passengers	92 (standard) / 120 (high‑density)
Notable Facts	First flight: 2 March 1969 (Concorde 001) Entered service: 1976 Retired: 2003 Total built: 20 aircraft Fastest trans‑Atlantic crossing: 2h 52m 59s (G‑BOAD)

Development Timeline

• 1954 – Arnold Hall (RAE) commissions Morien Morgan to study the feasibility of a Super Sonic Transport (SST).
• 1955 – The RAE committee concludes that early SST concepts using short, rectangular wings are impractical due to extreme drag and dangerously high landing speeds.
• Late 1950s – Dietrich Küchemann and Johanna Weber publish breakthrough research on delta‑wing aerodynamics, showing how vortex lift enables safe low‑speed handling.
• 1959–1960 – British and French engineers independently develop slender delta designs; political leaks later reveal shared design influence.
• April 1960 – Pierre Satre (Sud Aviation) visits Bristol to propose a joint Anglo‑French SST program.
• 1962 – Britain and France sign a draft treaty to jointly develop the SST. The name “Concorde” is chosen to symbolise unity and cooperation.
• 1963–1965 – Airlines worldwide place provisional orders for 74 Concordes, including Pan Am, BOAC, Air France, TWA, Qantas, Japan Airlines, and others.
• 1960s – Extensive research into heat management leads to the adoption of aluminium alloy, limiting top speed to Mach 2.2. Special white paint is developed to reduce skin temperature.
• 1960s – Radiation studies prompt installation of cockpit radiometers to monitor solar activity at Concorde’s 50,000–60,000 ft cruise altitude.
• 1966–1968 – Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines evolve into the Rolls‑Royce/Snecma Olympus 593, providing the thrust needed for supersonic cruise.
• 2 March 1969 – First flight of Concorde 001 from Toulouse. The aircraft later achieves 255 supersonic hours.
• 9 April 1969 – First flight of British prototype Concorde 002 from Filton to RAF Fairford.
• 1971–1973 – Pre‑production aircraft (101 and 102) fly, incorporating major aerodynamic and structural refinements.
• 1973 – Concorde 001 performs a record 74‑minute solar eclipse observation flight over Africa.
• 1973 – The crash of the Soviet TU‑144 at the Paris Air Show damages global confidence in SST programs.
• 1973–1974 – Oil crisis and stock market crash undermine the economics of supersonic travel; most airlines cancel their Concorde orders.
• 1974–1975 – Production aircraft 201 and 202 fly, completing certification testing.
• 21 January 1976 – Concorde enters commercial service with British Airways and Air France.
• 1977–1981 – G‑BOAD operates joint BA/Singapore Airlines services between Bahrain and Singapore, wearing dual liveries.
• 1996 – Pepsi promotional Concorde flies with a blue fuselage, restricted to Mach 1.7–2.2 due to heat absorption.
• 25 July 2000 – Air France Flight 4590 crashes shortly after take‑off from Paris, leading to the grounding of all Concordes.
• 2001 – £17 million in safety modifications are completed; Concorde returns to service on 1 November.
• 2003 – Concorde retires from commercial service. Final flights take place between April and November.
• Post‑2003 – All surviving Concordes are placed in museums across the UK, France, Germany, and the United States.

History

Early SST Studies

The beginning of the Concorde project, although Concorde was a name not yet even dreamt of, was known simply as the Super Sonic Transport (SST) project. Its origins trace back to when Arnold Hall, Director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked Morien Morgan to head a committee to study the possibilities of SST. They first met in February 1954 and delivered their findings in April of the following year.

Their findings concluded that to achieve supersonic speeds, and to overcome the high drag at such speeds, the wings would need to be short and rectangular — similar to those found on missiles and fighter jets such as the Starfighter.

At lower speeds, such wings would be inefficient, requiring longer runways or more powerful engines. Landing speeds would be unacceptably fast. The committee therefore determined that the SST concept was not feasible.

The Delta Wing Breakthrough

Not long after this, Dietrich Küchemann and Johanna Weber of the RAE published papers on the concept of a delta wing.

They explained that vortices forming over the upper wing surface at high angles of attack — such as during take‑off and landing — created a low‑pressure area that increased lift at acceptable speeds.

This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager when flying the Convair XF‑92, but had never been studied in detail. To use this effect, the aircraft would need to take off and land with a very high angle of attack, requiring longer landing gear to prevent tail strikes.

Nevertheless, they were onto something.

Heat, Materials & High‑Speed Challenges

The delta wing was clearly the correct design, but further research was required to manage the centre of gravity and centre of lift. Trials were conducted with straight, Gothic, and ogival (ogee) leading edges. The ogee produced the best results for SST use.

Heat was another major factor. At supersonic speeds, friction — even in thin high‑altitude air — generates enormous temperatures. Tests showed aluminium could withstand sustained temperatures up to 127°C over Concorde’s projected 45,000‑hour lifespan. This led to the decision to use aluminium rather than develop a new high‑temperature alloy, which would have delayed the program. This decision limited Concorde’s top speed to Mach 2.2.

To further manage skin temperature, Concorde was painted with a special white paint that reduced temperatures by 6–11°C. One Concorde was painted in Pepsi blue for a Middle East promotion. In darker colours, Concorde could only fly Mach 2.2 for 20 minutes before needing to slow to Mach 1.7 due to skin heating.

Fuel was also used as a heat sink, pumped to hot areas and using residual heat for cabin heating. During cruise, Concorde’s fuselage expanded by nearly 30 cm (1 ft). This was noticeable at the flight engineer’s station, where the panel separated from the bulkhead. It is said that on the last supersonic flight of each Concorde, the flight engineer dropped his hat into the gap — and it became permanently trapped when the fuselage cooled and contracted.

Radiation at 60,000 Feet

Radiation was another concern due to Concorde’s high cruise altitude of 50,000–60,000 ft. The thin atmosphere provided less protection from solar radiation. A radiometer was installed in the cockpit, and during high sunspot activity Concorde could descend below 47,000 ft if readings became too high.

The Anglo‑French Partnership

The French were also pursuing SST concepts. Their government requested designs from Sud Aviation, Nord Aviation, and Dassault. All three produced designs based on the Küchemann/Weber slender delta. Sud Aviation was chosen, and in April 1960 Pierre Satre travelled to Bristol to propose a partnership. Bristol engineers were surprised the French design was so similar to their own.

It later emerged that details of the British design had been leaked — likely as a political sweetener while Britain sought entry into the European Economic Community (EEC). France, under President Charles de Gaulle, was the main barrier to Britain joining.

Both parties agreed on most points, except the French preferred a smaller version while the British wanted a 150‑seat North Atlantic version. Initially it was thought the larger British version would require six engines, while the French version could use four. This was solved by the Bristol Siddeley Olympus engine, which provided enough power for both designs with four engines.

Debate continued over the economics of the project, but the fear of losing the race to market — and missing the expected SST boom — drove the partnership forward.

Naming Concorde

This was more a national collaboration than a corporate partnership. A draft treaty was signed on 29 November 1962.

The name “Concorde” was chosen because in French it means agreement, harmony, or union — as does the English word “concord”. Some in England objected to the French spelling, but Minister of Technology Tony Benn pointed out that the “e” stood for England and excellence. It was briefly changed to “Concord” but later reverted to “Concorde”. Not “the Concorde” or “a Concorde”, but simply “Concorde”, like a person’s name.

Economic & Environmental Challenges

Concorde was seen as an ambitious — perhaps flawed — undertaking. Development costs spiralled. The 1973 oil crisis and 1973/74 stock market crash added pressure. Aviation trends were shifting: aircraft such as the Boeing 747 and McDonnell Douglas DC‑10 were ushering in lower airfares, which had not been factored into SST economics.

The sonic boom caused problems over populated areas, and pollution concerns grew. The final straw for many airlines was the breakup of the Russian Tupolev TU‑144 (“Conkordski”) at the 1973 Paris Air Show, which damaged confidence in SST technology.

How Many Concordes Were Built?

In total, 20 Concordes were built:

• 2 prototypes
• 2 pre‑production aircraft
• 2 development aircraft
• 14 production aircraft

Specifications

	Concorde Specs
Crew	Three – Two Pilots and One Flight Engineer
Passengers	92 in standard configuration or 120 in high‑density layout
Length	61.66 m / 202 ft 4 in
Wingspan	25.6 m / 84 ft
Height	12.2 m / 40 ft
Internal Cabin Length	39.32 m / 129 ft
Fuselage Width	External: 2.87 m / 9 ft 5 in Internal: 2.62 m / 8 ft 7 in
Fuselage Height	External: 3.30 m / 10 ft 10 in Internal: 1.96 m / 6 ft 5 in
Wing Area	358.25 sq m / 3,856 sq ft
Empty Weight	78,700 kg / 173,500 lb
Useful Load	111,130 kg / 245,000 lb
Maximum Fuel	95,680 kg / 210,940 lb
Maximum Taxiing Weight	187,000 kg / 412,000 lb
Engines	4 × Rolls‑Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Mark 610 turbojets with afterburners
Engine Thrust	Standard: 140 kN / 32,000 lbf With afterburner: 169 kN / 38,050 lbf each
Maximum Speed (cruise altitude)	Mach 2.04 / 2,179 kph / 1,354 mph / 1,176 knots
Cruise Speed (cruise altitude)	Mach 2.02 / 2,158 kph / 1,340 mph / 1,164 knots
Range	3,900 nm / 7,223 km / 4,488 mi
Service Ceiling	18,300 m / 60,000 ft
Rate of Climb	50.8 m/s / 10,000 ft/min
Lift‑to‑Drag Ratio	Low Speed: 3.94 Approach: 4.35 250 kn @ 10,000 ft: 9.27 Mach 0.94: 11.47 Mach 2.04: 7.14
Fuel Consumption	13.2 kg/km / 46.85 lb/mi (maximum‑range configuration)
Thrust‑to‑Weight Ratio	0.373
Maximum Nose Tip Temperature	130°C / 260°F
Runway Length Required (maximum load)	3,600 m / 11,800 ft

Assembly

Prototypes

Two prototypes were built as quickly as possible to prove that the theories about SST were correct. One was French and one British.

The first to fly was the French Concorde, airframe 001, which took off from Toulouse on 2 March 1969. The aircraft flew 812 hours, of which 255 were supersonic. In 1973, Concorde 001 was modified with rooftop portholes to enable observation of a solar eclipse over Africa. It achieved the longest observation of a solar eclipse at 74 minutes. She was retired to the French Air Museum at Le Bourget on 19 October 1973 after 397 flights.

The British prototype made its first flight on 9 April 1969 from Filton to RAF Fairford. After completing 438 flights for a total of 836 hours, of which 196 were supersonic, Concorde 002 made her last flight on 4 March 1976. She was retired to the Fleet Air Museum at RAF Yeovilton.

Pre‑Production Aircraft

With the lessons learned from the prototypes, modifications were made to the design. The wing was refined, fuel capacity increased, and improvements were made to the engine air intake design.

Two pre‑production aircraft were built: airframes 101 and 102. These incorporated major aerodynamic and structural refinements based on prototype testing.

Production Aircraft

Two production aircraft, 201 and 202, were built.

These aircraft incorporated all modifications required as a result of the strenuous testing of the prototypes and pre‑production aircraft. These airframes represented the finished product that would be delivered to customers. Their purpose was to be used to gain certification of the type.

Full Concorde Fleet List

The following table details every Concorde built, including prototypes, pre‑production aircraft, development aircraft, and commercial airframes operated by British Airways and Air France.

Registration	Airframe	First Flight	Last Flight	Hours	Retired To
F-WTSS	001	02 Mar 69	19 Oct 73	812	French Air Museum, Le Bourget
Summary	This was the first Concorde to fly and was later modified with rooftop portholes to observe the solar eclipse of 1973. She completed 397 flights including 255 hours at supersonic speeds.
G-BSST	002	09 Apr 69	04 Mar 76	836	Fleet Air Museum, RAF Yeovilton
Summary	Britain’s first Concorde and the second prototype. She completed 438 flights including 196 hours at supersonic speeds.
G-AXDN	101	17 Dec 71	20 Aug 77	575	Duxford Aviation Society
Summary	First pre‑production aircraft. Flew 273 flights including 387 hours at supersonic speeds.
F-WTSA	102	10 Jan 73	20 May 76	656	Orly Airfield, Paris
Summary	First Concorde to fly to the U.S. (Dallas, 1973). Flew 314 flights including 189 hours at supersonic speeds.
F-WTSB	201	06 Dec 73	19 Apr 85	909	Aeroscopia Museum, Toulouse
Summary	First production aircraft. Flew 423 flights including 339 hours at supersonic speeds.
G-BBDG	202	13 Dec 74	24 Dec 81	1,282	Brooklands Museum, Surrey
Summary	First British production airframe. Flew 633 flights including 514 hours at supersonic speeds.
British Commercial Fleet

Orders and Deliveries

At the time of the first flight of Concorde, there were 16 airlines that had pencilled in 74 airframes. BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corporation, forerunner of British Airways) and Air France were the only airlines to take up their orders.

The airlines that placed orders are shown below in order of the date they signed for the option to take Concorde.

Airline	No.	Signed	Cancelled	Comments
Pan Am	6	03 June 1963	31 January 1973	2 extra ordered 1964
Air France	6	03 June 1963	–	2 extra ordered in 1964
BOAC (British Airways)	6	03 June 1963	–	2 extra ordered in 1964
Continental Airlines	3	24 July 1963	March 73
American Airlines	4	07 October 1963	February 1973	2 extra ordered in 1965
TWA	4	07 October 1963	31 January 1973	2 extra ordered in 1965
Middle East Airlines	2	04 December 1963	February 1973
QANTAS	6	19 March 1964	May 1966
Air India	2	15 July 1964	February 1975
Japan Airlines	3	30 September 1965	1973
Sabena	2	01 December 1965	February 1973
Eastern Airlines	2	28 June 1966	February 1973	2 extra ordered 15 Aug 1966 and 2 more on 28 Apr 1967
United Airlines	6	29 June 1966	26 October 1972
Braniff	3	01 September 1966	1973
Lufthansa	3	16 February 1967	April 1973
Air Canada	4	01 March 1967	06 June 1972

Legacy

Air France Flight 4590 – The Beginning of the End

At 16:43 on 25 July 2000, Air France’s first received Concorde, F‑BSTC, sealed her fate — and that of the Concorde program — when she ran over debris on the runway at Charles de Gaulle Airport, Paris.

Flying under a special flight number, AF 4590, she was on a charter flight from Paris to JFK, New York. Chartered by German company Peter Deilmann Cruises, the 100 passengers were to join their cruise ship, MS Deutschland, for a 16‑day cruise to Manta, Ecuador.

The Accident Chain

It is alleged that a Continental Airlines DC‑10 bound for Newark, New Jersey, five minutes before Concorde, dropped a strip of titanium on the runway.

Concorde ran over this during take‑off, cutting a tyre. Tyre debris was flung into the underside of the wing, not puncturing it but causing a shock wave that ruptured fuel tank number five at its weakest point, just above the landing gear.

The resulting gush of fuel either contacted a hot part of the engine or ignited from a severed wire.

Engines 1 and 2 surged and then lost power. Engine 1 slowly recovered. Engine 2 was shut down by the engineer on command from the captain.

Loss of Control

Air traffic control noticed flames under the wing and informed the crew.

The aircraft had passed V1, and the captain elected to continue the take‑off.

After lift‑off, the crew were unable to close the landing gear bay door. Combined with reduced thrust from only three engines, the aircraft could not climb. The fire’s heat caused the port wing to begin disintegrating as the metal softened.

Engine 1 surged again and lost thrust permanently.

The asymmetric thrust — two engines on one side, none on the other — made the aircraft uncontrollable. It banked to 100 degrees. The crew reduced power to compensate, but the aircraft slowed further and stalled.

The aircraft crashed into the Hôtelissimo Les Relais Bleus near the airfield. Cockpit transcripts indicate the crew hoped to divert to Le Bourget.

All 100 passengers and 9 crew were lost, along with 4 hotel employees.

Grounding, Modifications & Return to Service

All Concordes were grounded shortly after the crash pending investigation.

Once the cause was known, £17 million of safety modifications were made to most Concordes, and services resumed on 1 November 2001. Finally, all aircraft were retired in 2003.

The heady days of supersonic flight were over, and the pride of French and British aviation was sent to museums and displays to be marvelled at by future generations.

Operational Legacy

Air France’s Concordes operated at a loss but were maintained as a matter of national pride. British Airways, however, managed to operate theirs profitably — averaging £30 million per year.

Perhaps one day supersonic passenger flight will return, though it seems more likely that high‑speed suborbital travel may become the future of ultra‑fast transport.